An Examination of the Poetry of Anne Bradstreet Flashcard

An Examination of the Poetry of Anne Bradstreet

Anti-Terror Laws - What Americ essays

Anti-Terror Laws - What Americ essays Anti-Terror Laws - What Americans Should Know Unaware to most people in the US, recently passed laws allow the government to watch them just about as much as they want. After the tragic terrorist attacks of September 11th, 2001 there have been many laws passed to protect our nation from these terrible people. In the process of trying to protect us, the citizens of the United States, they have started to pry into our lives. Making some uncomfortable. Many people believe there are too many flaws and that these new laws can give the government too much access to our lives. The main laws that have passed include the USA Patriot Act, the Homeland Security Act, and a possible Domestic Security Enhancement Act, currently in draft form. I am not saying do away with these laws, but they should be revised, reconsidered, and then put back into place. Initially, the USA Patriot Act was passed by an overwhelming vote by the US Congress on October 26, 2001. This act was passed very quickly after the 9/11 attacks, it is considered a weaker version of the upcoming Homeland Security Act. This law allows the FBI to begin spying on American's that were considered a threat. There was judicial over-sight established in the 70's to stop this. Some of the FBI and CIA monitoring affect a lot of areas of typical American's lives. Internet usage can be spied on if a law enforcement agent believes that surveillance is "relevant" in an ongoing investigation. When a person signs on to the internet they send and receive "packets" of information and that creates what comes up on the screen and this is what a user interacts with. New government software named Carnivore is included in the expanded investigative powers included in this act. This software "sniffs" these packets for key words or e-mail addresses that have become deemed a threat by investigators. FBI now can obtain access to many sensitive documents about a person's life just by sta...

The Interest Rating to Develop a Theory of Liquidity Preference Essay

The Interest Rating to Develop a Theory of Liquidity Preference - Essay Example When the economy is doing well, the corporate cash flows rise above what is required to pay the debt off. This leads to speculative euphoria where this act of borrowing and lending goes on and reaches a point where the borrowers are no longer able to pay off the debt. As borrowers are no longer able to pay back, it leads to financial crises where banks do not have liquidity. As a result of the borrowers’ default, banks further tighten their lending, which means that even deserving borrowers that could pay back do not get access to capital in such circumstances. According to Minsky, these swings are a part of a free market economy and cannot be avoided unless there is the provision of a government enforced the regulation. Mishkin, on the other hand, focused on the role of asymmetric information in the financial system. This essentially means that one party in the transaction has less information than the other party. For example, a lender is not aware of the potential ways in which the borrower is going to use the money, but in case the money is lost, it is always the lender who is at the losing end. This asymmetric information creates two problems, namely the adverse selection and the moral hazard. Adverse selection is a trend in which lenders choose borrowers who can pay a higher interest, knowing that they can pay higher interest because their business is riskier and hence there is a greater chance of losing the money on the part of the lender. The interest rate on such investments is quite exaggerated to reflect the risk premium. Moral hazard occurs when the borrowers may choose to invest the money in activities that are undesirable from the lenders’ point of view or else they simply do not work. As this loss is to be borne by the lenders, they will refrain from lending thus causing a financial crisis. Mishkin concentrates on interest rates to develop a theory of liquidity  preference.  

Pick up a topic from my PDF Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Pick up a topic from my PDF - Essay Example It is believed that the first cellular life forms were anaerobic heterotrophs because they lacked fully functional mitochondria. For example, majority of parabasalids and diplomonads are found in surroundings that lack oxygen. These protists do not contain plastid. In addition, their mitochondria are short of DNA and enzymes required for the tricarboxylic acid cycle. They also lack an electron transport chain. In other species, the mitochondria are extremely tiny. In these species, the cytosol contains cofactors that take part in production of ATP. A common example of a diplomonad is Girdia intestinalis got by taking contaminated water. Girdia thrives in mammals’ intestines where there is inadequate oxygen. Parabasalids include trichomonads such as Trichomonas vaginalis, which live in the vagina of female human beings (an anaerobic environment). Trichomonas vaginalis outgrow other beneficial bacteria and infect the vaginal lining under suitable conditions of acidity. Protists generally carry out three main metabolic activities, which are photosynthesis, nitrogen fixation, and respiration. Metabolic paths in Protists involve many materials and pathways, some of which are unique to this group only. Blue-green algae or the cyanobacteria use chlorophyll a and other pigments known as phycobilins for photosynthesis. Phycobilins have two colors, phycocyanin (blue) and phycoerythrin (red). Thylakoid-like membranes hold chlorophyll a just like in plants. Purple and green bacteria are anaerobes that utilize sulphur compounds, fatty acids, and alcohols as electron donors during the energy generating processes. Photosystem 2 in plants appeared to have evolved from photosynthesis in purple bacteria whereas, in bacteria, this system is a predecessor of photosystem 1. Prokaryotes are the only living things that have the ability to fix free nitrogen from the atmosphere. Endosymbiosis played an extremely large role in the evolution of prokaryotic and eukaryotic protists. Endosymbiosis involved unicellular organisms engulfing other cells. These cells in return evolved into organelles in the hosts’ cells. For example, the original eukaryotes obtained mitochondria as a result of swallowing up alpha proteobacteria. Studies of all protists indicate that they all have mitochondria, or at least previously contained them. Later on, a descendant of heterotrophic eukaryotes obtained a photosynthetic cyanobacterium as an endosymbiont. This photosynthetic cyanobacterium later changed to a plastid. Red and green algae arose from this lineage. Scientific evidence of this phenomenon is the similarity in the DNA sequences of cyanobacteria and plastids in red and green algae. These algae also went through secondary endosymbioisis through the process of evolution on a number of incidences. They were swallowed in a heterotrophic eukaryotes’ food vacuole and became endosymbionts. Chlorarachniophytes is a good example of algae that progressed from such a process. Fossils of protists and other microscopic organisms are contained in microfossils. Microfossil records indicate that prokaryotes were the earliest forms of being in the world for a long time (about 3.5 billion years ago). Protists came after the prokaryotes at some 1.5 billion years ago. Fossil records are able to give distinctions between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells in terms of the internal cell compositions. Zonation on a Local and Global Scale Zones are biological phenomena that

Course Expectations and Goals Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Course Expectations and Goals - Essay Example I have not always been an A student, but this particular topic interests me, and I think that I should be able to shine if I study hard and am open to learning from you, my teacher, and also my peers, who may be more knowledgeable about me in this certain subject. My strengths in technical writing are that I am someone who has a lot of thoughts swirling around in my brain, so it shouldn’t be too hard for me to jot them down on paper. Part of being such a good writer is to always be open to critique, and I am sure that this is one area that I can excel in. On the other hand though, my attention to detail is perhaps not as great as it should be. I think the reason for this is that I think faster than I can write, and thus the words are coming out of my brain much faster than I can write them out. I am aware of this and realize that I need to slow it down and properly construe the thought patterns that may be in my head. In terms of organization, I am a pretty well-organized person because I set deadlines for whenever I have to complete something by. Part of this process is breaking down the task into smaller more manageable â€Å"chunks† so that the task does not seem so daunting at first. My mind is naturally inclined to think critically about whatever I am writing about (Is this the only way? What if my way is wrong? Is there a better option?). I ask myself all these questions because I always want to strive for the very best that I have to offer. If I can refine my work just marginally, it may end up strengthening my argument. My grammar skills are quite acceptable to most people’s standards. I always take great pride in the quality of my work, and this also means the way it is presented too. Once I have completed a work, I go back over it and check for not only any blatant errors, but also for places where the copy can be improved or tweaked to make it more concise. I would

Tissue engineering for skin

Tissue engineering for skin TISSUE ENGINEERING OF THE SKIN (MECH 5510M) LITERATURE REVIEW SID: 200507638 ABSTRACT: This essay is a literature review on the tissue engineering for skin replacement, with regard to the clinical need, approaches various commercially-available products. Skin is undoubtedly crucial in the maintenance of the bodys internal balance also protecting externally. It gets severely compromised in burns, non-healing ulcers, reconstructive surgeries etc. bringing down the patients quality of life drastically. Tissue engineering is a more efficient approach than traditional skin grafting. It is a research area that is forever evolving, where researchers are always working towards one united goal, i.e. to develop in bulk quantities, a skin substitute that can be handled with less care, integrates faster with the bodys natural matrix and costs reasonable. INTRODUCTION: A lot of research has been undertaken in the past to realize that it is possible to generate skin by applying engineering techniques. This is done by growing skin at a faster rate than normal and in an artificial manner4. Skin is the largest most widely spread organ in the human body. Its role is to protect the bodys internal environment from harshness of the external conditions and restrict entry of microbes, by acting as a barrier4. Several situations diseases arise, due to which the skin gets irreparably damaged, thus requiring interventional help in restoring it back to health. Tissue engineering is the application of engineering techniques to develop biological substitutes1. Burns (acute) ulcers (chronic) are the most common conditions which require the replacement of skin. In developing countries (Fig 1)2,3, due to lack of knowledge on safety, a very high number of burns accidents occur every year, and mostly of fatal nature. The fatality is mainly due to pain, infection, loss of body fluids incapability of the body to self-regenerate large amounts of lost skin5. Thus, experimentation in this field was triggered. Many skin diseases, which lead to necrosis, pigmentation problems, also require engineered skin4. CLINICAL NEED FOR SKIN TISSUE ENGINEERING: In most incidents, both the epidermal and dermal layers require replacement. Conventionally, the treatment method involved skin grafting i.e. autologous (self) split-thickness and full-thickness grafting, where healthy skin was taken from other areas of the body and replaced at the injury site. Split-thickness (comprising of the epidermis a part of the dermis) grafting is not a logical method to use, when a large area of the body (>50%) is affected less healthy skin is available. But, it is todays gold standard approach6. Further trauma, due to grafting, can be painful to a patient who is already in a critical state. Also, scar formation post-operatively is another reason for its reduced usage. Full-thickness grafts are suitable to use when the burned area is less than 2% of the total area. These problems could be avoided if skin (of full or partial thickness) were grown artificially and substituted in the place of real skin6. LITERATURE REVIEW: The skin can be broadly divided into two layers i.e. the epidermis dermis. The epidermis is made up of several layers and may/may not consist of extra-cellular matrix (ECM). The layers from surface to deep are: cornified, granular, spinosal and basalar layers. The most commonly found cells here are the keratinocytes melanocytes. The dermis is constituted by GAGs proteins. Within the dermis, fibroblasts are most commonly found8. Several skin substitutes exist for wound coverage in tissue engineering4. It can be broadly divided into temporary and permanent skin substitutes. The table below (Table 1) is a list of all the material options available for skin replacement: Table 1: Temporary and Permanent Skin Substitutes8 Permanent tissue engineering of the skin can be broadly divided into three categories6, 8: Epidermal replacements Generally, using autologous keratinocyte sheets. Replaces only the epidermis, but â€Å"take rates† are very poor, suitable for superficial burn treatment only. Dermal replacements Replaces only the dermal layer. In most cases, it is applied along with an epidermal graft to improve â€Å"take rates†. Dermo-epidermal (bilayer skin) replacements Replaces both the epidermis and dermis. Suitable for full-thickness burns. Skin replacements have two main components i.e. cells and the scaffold. In wound coverage, three types of cells can be used autologous, allogenic or stem cells. Autologous (self) cell usage is the most preferred as it is easily accepted by the patients body does not need incite and anti-immune responses. Allogenic (donor) cells, if used directly can lead to the eventual rejection of the transplant. However, it is used in an acellular fashion, where the donor keratinocytes are removed prior to culturing9. Stem cells have trans-germal pluripotential properties are currently being researched for their poteintial application in skin engineering. Less information is obtained on keratinocyte stem cells. The suggested reason for their longevity is that KSC cycles very slowly and is resistant to mutations8. The type of biodegradable scaffold, either natural or synthetic permits cells to attach onto them and facilitate handling during transplantation6, 9. Rheinwald Green Experiment8: The experiment carried out in 1975 by Rheinwald and Green where human (autologous) keratinocytes were produced in-vitro, proved to be a breakthrough in this field and modified versions of this method are used nowadays. Extracted keratinocytes were allowed to form colonies on a plastic substrate. These colonies expanded to form a sheet. Stratifications arose as the daughter cells, usually at the centre, started multiplying vertically and a 12-cell layer was achieved. To increase the multiplicative capacity of keratinocytes, a feeder layer (comprising murine Swiss 3T3 lethally irradiated fibroblasts) mitogens were introduced to the culture. Epidermal Replacements: A small skin biopsy of the patient is harvested, which is cultured to produce a patch. The full-thickness biopsy of the patients skin is cut finely and enzymes are added to cause disaggregation of the skin into cells. A feeder layer, as mentioned previously, is used to culture these cells in culture flasks. To promote proliferation, epidermal growth factors, enzymes such as insulin, hydrocortisone, cholera-toxin and bovine serum are used. After colonies have been formed, trypsin is added. The KCs are cultured to confluence and later, the sheets are removed from the flasks (using dispase) for use8. The result of this method compared to the split-thickness gold standard is quite poor, as the dermal layer is missing and it depends upon the health of the dermis existing. Also, it is prone to scarring, takes too long, expensive, extremely fragile and has varying â€Å"take† rates6. Dermal Replacements: It was claimed, in 1952, that using only pure epidermal sheets, success would be lesser than compared to those with a dermis10. To accentuate the success of the epidermal transplantation, dermal replacements were constructed. A dermal replacement that covered the affected area with cryoprserved allogenic skin was used minus the epidermal layer was used11, 12. Also, an observation that allogenic keratinocytes elicited more anti-immune response than allogenic fibroblasts, was reported. To reconstruct the dermis, the two-stage Integra application is most widely used now13. This dermis functions as a scaffold for the attachment of keratinocytes and improves vascularization9. Burke et al (1981) developed a dermal replacement, where a collagen sponge was covered with a silastic layer (synthetic). The sponge behaves as a scaffold for the fibroblast cells. This technique was commercialized into a product (Integra Dermal Regeneration Template) 9, 14. A modification to this employed GAGs along with collagen, in the scaffold. Here, a precipitated mixture of bovine collagen fibres and a chondrotin-6-sulfate (GAG from shark cartilage) was freeze dried. This generated a collagen-GAG sponge scaffold, which had a mean pore size. Cross-linkage to strengthen the matrix was done using gluteraldehyde. Finally, the silastic layer was applied. This is available as a product; Integra Artificial Skin (Chamberlain and Yannas, 1999)9, 15. According to Heimbach et al (1988), this is most suitable for burns patients. The concept of using absorbable polymer scaffolds (synthetic) such as polyglactin 910 or polyglycolic acid was the next improvement in dermal replacements. Here, allogenic fibroblasts are enzymatically cultured and this culture is mounted on the polymer scaffold for integration). Due to this, an ECM consisting of collagen, growth factors, GAGs etc. is formed, which stays active even after it is frozen17. This was commercialized as Dermagraft 8, 16. Two-stage dermis application has shown proven results, and now clinical trials are being conducted to examine the applicability of one-stage dermis, such as Matriderm 6. The dermal replacements essentially require an epidermal covering. Dermo-Epidermal Replacements: These are available both as autologous or off-the-shelf products. In autologous DED replacements, both keratinocytes and fibroblasts are harvested from the patient and are added to the collagen-GAG scaffold. Cultivation of this in culture medium is for around four weeks. This is a more permanent solution 6, 18, 19. The first model of todays Apligraf was done by Bell et al (1979)20. DEDs use human keratinocytes fibroblast cells (allogenic) within a scaffold. Morphological studies after using Apligraf reported the presence of a well-defined epidermis, with all four layers, as in the natural skin, and seeded allogenic fibroblasts aligned in a normal manner within the collagen matrix 8, 21. COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE PRODUCTS: CONCLUSION FUTURE AIMS: Tissue engineering of the skin was the first to be approved by the FDA has evolved a great deal, from the first application of only cultured keratinocytes to the use of biological skin substitutes. Research is still in-progress to develop skin in bulk quantities, mainly for burns patients, and to mimic all the mechanical and properties and functions of the natural skin. The state of the art results can be achieved now by using cultured keratinocyte cells with the dermal replacement, Integra, in full-thickness, small and clean wounds. This has shown optimal results in cosmesis and wound closure8. However, this branch of tissue engineering is still very much in a developing level. Studies to analyse how to reduce various risks in patients, who receive donor cells should be done. Also, a main difficulty is in getting the cells to attach to the dermis, post-transplantation. Burns patients are highly susceptible to various problems, thus there is a need for materials that present lower risk than animal/human materials. Mainly, it is ideal if the graft starts to behave like natural skin soon after grafting, which is possible only with rapid vascularization and cell implantation. Also, low expense of these products is extremely desirable. REFERENCES: Nerem R M. 1992. Tissue engineering in the USA. Medical Biological Engineering Computing, Vol 30, pp. CE8-CE 12. Burn Incidence and Treatment in the United States: 1999 Fact Sheet (The Burn Foundation, Philadelphia, 1999). Rose, J. K. Herndon, D. N. Advances in the treatment of burn patients. Burns 23 (suppl. 1), S19-S26 (1997). McNeil S. 2007. Progress and opportunities for tissue-engineered skin. Nature. Vol 445 (22), pp. 874-880. Pomahac B, T. Svensjà ¶, F. Yao, H. Brown and E. Eriksson. 1998. Critical Reviews in Oral Bioogy and Medicine. Vol9; pp. 333-344. Bottcher-Haberzeth S, T Bedermann, E Reichmann. 2009. Tissue engineering of skin. Burns, doi:10.1016/j.burns.2009.08.016 Burn Injury Occurrence is higher in Developing Countries. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burn Price R, E Anthony, S Myers and H Navsaria. Chapter 17: Tissue engineering for Skin Transplantation. In: Clemens van Blitterswijk, Peter Thomsen, Anders Lindahl, Jeffrey Hubbell, David F. Williams, Ranieri Cancedda, Joost D. de Bruijn and Jà ©rà ´me Sohier eds., Tissue Engineering. Elsevier Inc, Pp. 507-532. Morgan J R, R L Sheridian, R G Tompkins, M L Yarmush and J F Burke. 2004. Chapter 7: Applications of Materials in Medicine, Biology and Artificial Organs (7.12). In: B D Ratner, A S Hoffman, F J Schoen and J E Lemons eds., Biomaterials Science. Elsevier Academic Press, pp. 602-614. Billingham, R.E. and Reynolds, J. 1952. Transplantation studies on sheets of pure epidermal epithelium and on epidermal cell suspensions. British Journal of Plastic Surgery, Vol 5, pp. 25 36. Cuono , C.B. , Langdon , R. , e t al. 1987. Composite autologous-allogeneic skin replacement: development and clinical application. Plastic Reconstruction Surgery, Vol 80, pp 626 637. Heck , E.L. , Bergstresser , P.R. , e t al. 1985. Composite skin graft: frozen dermal allografts support the engraftment and expansion of autologous epidermis . Journal of Trauma, Vol 25, pp. 106 112. Heimbach, D .M., W arden, G .D., e t al. ( 2003 ). Multicenter postapproval clinical trial of Integra dermal regeneration template for burn treatment. Journal of Burn Care Rehabilitation, Vol 24, pp. 42 48 . Burke, J.F. , Yannas , I.V. , e t al. ( 1981 b ). Successful use of a physiologically acceptable artificial skin in the treatment of extensive burn injury. Annals of Surgery, Vol 194, pp. 413 428. Chamberlain L J, Yannas I V. 1999. Preparation of collagen-glycosaminoglycan copolymers for tissue regeneration. In Methods in Tissue Engineering, J R Morgan and M L Yarmush eds. Humana Press, pp. 3-17. Hansbrough, J.F. , Cooper , M.L., et al. 1992a. Evaluation of a biodegradable matrix containing cultured human fibroblasts as a dermal replacement beneath meshed skin grafts on athymic mice. Surgery, Vol. 111, pp. 438 446. Cooper , M.L. , Hansbrough , J.F. , e t al. 1991. In vivo optimization of a living dermal substitute employing cultured human fibroblasts on a biodegradable polyglycolic acid or polyglactin mesh. Biomaterials, Vol. 12, pp. 243 248. Pham C, Greenwood J, Cleland H, Woodruff P, Maddern G. 2007. Bioengineered skin substitutes for the management of burns: a systematic review. Burns; Vol. 33, pp. 946-57. Boyce ST. 2001 Design principles for composition and performance of cultured skin substitutes. Burns; Vol. 27, pp. 523-33. Bell , E. , Ivarsson , B. , e t al. 1979. Production of a tissue like structure by contraction of collagen lattices by human fibroblasts of different proliferative potential in vitro. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, Vol. 76, pp. 1274 1278. Parenteau , N.L. , Bilbo , P. , et al. 1992. The organotypic culture of human skin keratinocytes and fibroblasts to achieve form and function. Cytotechnology, Vol. 9, pp. 163 171. Apligraf Structure vs. Skin Structure. Available from: http://www.organogenesis.com/images/apligraf_main3.jpg Fig. 3, Collagen GAG scaffolds for Tissue Engineering. Pek et al, 2004, Biomaterials. Available from: http://web.mit.edu/dmse/csg/Tissue_Regeneration.html Fig. 3, Collagen GAG scaffolds for Tissue Engineering. OBrien et al, 2004, Biomaterials. Available from:http://web.mit.edu/dmse/csg/Tissue_Regeneration.html

A Short History of Reproductive Politics in America Essay -- health, pr

Abortion refers to a medical procedure which at times is surgical, that is used to terminate an ongoing pregnancy by expulsion of the placenta and the fetus before it is mature or viable. There are several reasons why abortion may be procured. Some reasons could be personal in the case of a pregnancy that was not planned for, others could be medical. Medical reasons could be a wide range but focusing on the health of the mother or the baby. If carrying a pregnancy to term would affect the health of the mother either physically or mentally an abortion would be recommended (Solinger 2005).cited with MLA styles When abortion is done in consideration to the health of the unborn child it is when it’s determined that the child could have dire mental or physical disabilities. The mode and means undertaken to perform the process depend on how advanced the pregnancy is, the safety and also in some cases the legality. Abortion has been performed for long periods of time and has been passed over the generations. The methods used have evolved over these generations with some proving fatal and others working like they had been expected to. In recent times, abortion can be performed safely due to numerous advances in technology and in medicine. Before 1973 abortion was not legal in the U.S and various methods were used in procuring abortions. Some of these were crude in every sense and were performed in back-alleys either, by medical professionals or by crooks (Solinger 2005). Many a time, they proved fatal to the young women who sought them and resulted in death. Some died of the abortion procedure itself while many more died of infections after the procedure. As a result, many women struggled to keep abortions a secret due to its i... ...urces. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Oct. 2013. . Blake, J.. "Abortion And Public Opinion: The 1960-1970 Decade." Science 171.3971 (1971): 540-549. Print. Halfmann, Drew. "Historical Priorities And The Responses Of Doctors' Associations To Abortion Reform Proposals In Britain And The United States, 1960-1973." Social Problems 50.4 (2003): 567-591. Print. Hull, N. E. H., and Peter Charles Hoffer.Roe v. Wade: the abortion rights controversy in American history. Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 2001. Print. Williams, Mary E.. Abortion: opposing viewpoints. San Diego, Calif.: Greenhaven Press, 2002. Print. Brown, James. "Study findings from Linkoping University broaden understanding of induced abortion.." New York Times 22 Apr. 2010: 45-47. Print. Alphabetize and indent all 2nd, 3rd of citation Italicize tittle of books

Prejudice and Discrimination Essay

Prejudice as defined by John E Farley is â€Å"that prejudice refers to a positive or a negative attitude or belief directed toward certain people based on their membership in a particular group. The root word of prejudice is pre-judge. It is a set of attitudes which causes, supports, or justifies discrimination†. (Farley, 2000, p18). There are three components of prejudice which describe the different elements associated with it. Affectual one’s inner feeling which can be the result of incitement and are in accordance with people’s likes and dislikes. Behavioural the way people action their belief systems causing them to behave in a certain way. Cognitive the preconceived beliefs or expectations and involves stereotyping which usually are negative. Discrimination can be defined as the making of, a for or against action towards a person based on group, class, or a category to which they belong, rather than judge a person on their merit . This is the external representation of internal prejudice. Baron and Byrne (1997) defined discrimination as â€Å"negative behaviours directed towards people who are the object of prejudice†. Allport (1954) suggests that there are five stages of discrimination. Anti-locution would include incitement by speech for example racially motivated or sectarian jokes. Avoidance where failing to include people without considering their capabilities means people in minority groups are continuously avoided by the individuals of the majority group. Although no harm is meant, harm is still done through isolation. Discrimination comprises of a denying opportunities to a minority group or person with the intent of deliberately preventing them from receiving services or goals such as education and employment. Physical Attack involves the deliberate vandalising of or violent attacks on individuals and their property. Extermination is ethnic cleansing in an attempt to annihilate an entire race of peoples. (Allport, 1954, p71) It is difficult to distinguish the differences in the relationship between prejudice and discrimination. Our emotions and evaluations of others essentially reflects our prejudices, whereas rejection and concerns of acceptance describe our discriminations. Therefore someone who shows discrimination may not be prejudice. (Wagstaff, 2005, p1). Prejudice is a person or group attitude which may or may not develop into discrimination. It is an attitude as opposed to an action. Discrimination is not always the result of prejudice. There are cases where prejudice is not needed for discrimination whilst the law prevents prejudice from becoming discrimination now; this was not always the case. In some cases the law makes people discriminate, whether they feel prejudice or not. (Haralambos & Rice, 2002, p272). An example of this was LaPierre’s study which examined willingness to display prejudice and discrimination to a Chinese couple at a time of anti-oriental sentiment. He travelled across America with the couple, in total they visited over 250 establishments and were refused service only once. After returning home LaPierre sent letters to all the establishments visited asking if they would serve members of the Chinese race 91% replied no they would not. Critics have also stated that the letters may have gone to the managers or owners of the establishments who may have been prejudiced themselves while staff were not. Furthermore they may also have thought they were reflecting the wishes of their guests. Another reason they may have been served is because LaPierre accompanied them. The couple spoke excellent English, they were well presented and courteous this could all help towards being accepted as guests. There are many flaws in this study but it does show there are differences between prejudice and discrimination. (Haralambos & Rice, 2002, p272). A school teacher Elliot (1977) conducted an experiment in order to help understand the effects of prejudice and discrimination. The first day the class of nine year olds were told children with blue eyes were superior to the children with brown eyes. The brown eyed children were to be kept in their place by the blue eyed children and restrictions placed upon them such as standing last in line. The brown eyed children’s behaviour changed they did not do as well in school work and became depressed and angry, the blue eyed students became mean made derogatory statements and oppressed the other children. The following day the teacher told them she had made a mistake it was the brown eyed children who were superior. When reversed there were the same outcomes. Elliot (1977) said â€Å"I watched what had been marvellous, cooperative, wonderful, thoughtful children turn into nasty, vicious, discriminating little third-graders in a space of fifteen minutes. † (Positiveschools,n. d. ) Even though follow up of these children suggested they were more tolerant of differences between groups and actively opposed discrimination. (positiveschools, n. d. ). However critics argue the study lacked validity as it was not scientific and she had not put in place adequate protection for the children. Authoritarian personality, realistic group conflict and social identity are three theories that are considered to be the foundations of prejudice and discrimination. According to Adorno et al. (1950) â€Å"Authoritarian personality theory is based primarily on psychoanalytic principles, and proposes that prejudices most likely to arise in families that try to enforce conventional values through harsh discipline† (Wagstaff, 2005, p3). According to this theory, because of guilt and fear of punishment, children reared in such environments cannot register their frustration and aggression towards the legitimate target their parents. Growing up with no freedom of choice builds up frustration that leads to the authoritarian person looking for someone that is weaker who they can take out their frustrations on them in the form of prejudice or discrimination. This is referred to as ‘displaced aggression’. They are unable to say what they feel to the parents. Adorno created the f-scale as a way of measuring the prejudice of the authoritarian person. Various questionnaires which measured a person’s attitudes of the authoritarian personality. The numbers were high but the questions were written in a manner that would have people answer even if it is not what they think ‘yes-people’ an example question was â€Å"Do you think your employers should hire Negros? † (Allport, 1954, p76). The sample Adorno used was biased as there was not a broad enough range of people in it, it was mainly 2000 middle classes no Jewish white Americans. All ages and classes should be represented and in a larger sample. The right wing authoritarianism scale has now replaced the f scale and asks questions such as â€Å"Is it easy to understand the anger of black people in America? † (McConahay, 1986, p125). One person’s personality cannot explain how whole societies become prejudice. This theory does not explain for example how large groups such as Nazi Germany and other countries where mass genocide has taken place all became prejudice. Billing (1976) states that if prejudice it a personality characteristic then some people would be more prejudice than others. Also Altemeyer (1988) produced evidence that authoritarianism stems from adolescence rather than childhood, adolescents who imitated the parents authoritarian personalities got rewarded for it. He also found that social attitudes more than personality attitudes contributed to authoritarian personality. (Haralambos & Rice, 2002, p274). Pettigrew (1959) believes it is conformity to the group norm that is responsible for mass prejudice rather than a type of personality. Altemeyer (1988) found social changes produced more increases in authoritarian scores. Pettigrew (1958) carried out a comparison of four southern state towns, evidence supported white southerners were more prejudiced against African Americans than white northerners. Was this because there are a larger number of authoritarian personalities or a difference in cultural norms? He argued that prejudice can be depicted through cultural norms than on personality. He found that northern conformists were less prejudiced than southern conformist; his findings were based on the personality questionnaire. (Haralambos & Rice, 2002, p275). Levels of authoritarianism were found to be the same in South Africa as America, yet South Africa had a lot more prejudice because of cultural and political factors. (Gross, 2012, p49). Realistic group conflict theory states conflict arises between groups as a result of struggles that occur when two groups are in competition with one another; for limited resources or want to achieve the same goals. Muzafer Sherif et al (1961) devised an experiment to study the relationships between competition and prejudice. There were twenty two middle class eleven to twelve year old boys based at Robber’s Cave State Park summer camp. They were assigned into two groups. Activities were assigned to each group to develop a sense of belonging. At the end of the first week the two groups were introduced. They immediately showed signs of territoriality and fighting in sued. Tournaments with prizes were then engineered between the groups. At the end of the week the boys rated themselves in their own group as superior and even boys in the group who had been previously rated low were elevated. The other group were considered to be cheats and cowards. Attempts were then made to reduce the conflict in which the groups had to work together. A consequence for pursuing these goals was that the groups became friendlier towards one another. Sherrif et.al’s study showed that the boys acted differently towards one another depending on the situation they were in. When in competition they felt dislike, hatred and when placed in a setting with common goals friendships were forged. It would be interesting to see the results of the study had it been all girls, this was not a fair study as it was not a representative of all groups in society therefore it is a bias sample. The surroundings of the study were not consistent with every day. This experiment shows how competition for different resources can generate prejudice and that competition can degenerate into hostility and conflict. Tyerman & Spencer (1983) contradicted Tajfel’s theory; they observed a group of English boy scouts who knew each other before camp. They were divided into four groups and placed into similar competition as in the robbers cave. The boys reactions to this did not change they remained friendly and in group solidarity did not increase. This suggests competition is not sufficient alone for inter group conflict. (Gross, 2012, p391-392). This theory gives a more practical, offering a more social point of view to prejudice. Where this theory does make more sense there are some issues with it. For example not all groups that compete with each other result in prejudice and discrimination. Tajfel et al. (1971) discovered that in a number of experiments it was not necessary for competition to be present between groups for there to be prejudice. They discovered just being a member of the in group as opposed to what they considered to be the out group was enough to produce prejudice. Locksley et al (1980) went further than Tajfel by informing the participants they were being randomly assigned by a coin toss, meaningless names given and even with these conditions there was a strong in group preference. According to Brown (1988) dozens of studies throughout the world with a range of participants from all ages and both sexes, concluded that merely allotting people into groups leads to judgements and behaviours being biased and discriminative. It was this discovery that led to the basis for social identity theory. Fiske (2004) believes this theory describes prejudice and discrimination more palpably. Realistic group conflict theory does help explain increases in prejudice in war torn countries. Social identity theory states that discrimination and prejudice are only possible if people are categorised into groups so that they identify and develop a sense of belonging. Given that our self-image is important to us, we strive for this to be positive. Social image comes from social identity. Therefore people view the groups to which they belong as positive. They make comparisons between their group and others and believe their group to be superior to the others, leading to discrimination in favour of their own group and have a negative view of other groups. The assumption is therefore that Prejudice and discrimination result from group identification and the need for a positive image. Tajfel believed mankind are motivated to make sense of the world around them, he thought this was done through a process of categorisation, assimilation and coherence but these processes do not explain prejudice, he later rose to more points that much of personal identity comes from social groups and that we strive for self-esteem. In Tajfel’s study a group of strangers who had no contact with each other were randomly split into two groups. In one experiment participants were asked to give out money, they favoured their own group even if it meant losing money; participants identified with ‘their group’ and had a clear bias with the other group. Social identity theory states prejudice is inevitable. (Haralambos & Rice, 2002, p277). Another experiment Tajfel performed was to show boys a painting by Klee and Kandinsky and asked which they preferred. The boys were given money to dispense, the boys gave the money to the fans of the picture that they preferred, this showed immense loyalty to their in group, even though they did not know one another. (Fiske, 2008, p15) Social identity theory explains a person’s need for a positive identity does involve stereotyping, discrimination and prejudice, this leads to an in group situation where the in group are seen as positive and is the reverse for the negative and its out groups. Though on a larger scale this theory does not explain extreme forms of prejudice, relationships between groups are not just about being seen positively but they can be for reasons such as a power, money and scarce resources, these can lead to prejudice and discrimination. In Pakistan we are lead to believe the Taliban are representing its people and they are fighting for their freedom. That westerners are there to help the people. Yet when eleven year old Malala Yousafzai spoke out and wrote a blog for the B. B. C. it resulted in her being shot in the head. â€Å"Malala does not want to play to some western-backed or Taliban-loved stereotype. She shows us all there are voices out there that need to be heard, if only to help the country find democracy that is for and from the people, all the people. †(BBCNews,2012,p1). This cannot be put down to social identity theory. This theory is able to explain stereotypes prejudice and discrimination and all are seen as a need in the individual for a positive identity. Preferences lead to the positive in group stereotype and therefore will lead to prejudice and discrimination which will favour the in group but will be the opposite for the out group there by producing negative discrimination towards the out group. Social identity theory does not explain extreme forms of prejudice Brown and Lunt (2002) state how a theory based on attitudes, such as in-group favouritism can, explain the systematic slaughter of millions in Nazi death camps? This theory concentrates on two groups the in group and the out group with two groups it is easy to create a them and us situation but what happens when a third or fourth group is introduced there will not be the same polarisation and therefore the same bias will not be created. Conclusion Some researchers believe prejudice is caused by a fear of strangers or change, while others see it as a type of chauvinism regarding issues such as nationalism or religion. However there is general agreement that prejudice is learned. It is safe to say that no one theory can explain all areas of prejudice and discrimination. However they all contribute to giving us some understanding as to how prejudice and discrimination become part of our society. Fiske (2008) is working on a theory which suggests we are born prejudiced. She has been observing brain activity using M. R. I scanners, studying the amygdala region which is the fear response of the brain. This is triggered when we judge people or events we deem threatening Fiske’s findings suggest are conscious try getting the sub conscious to stop unwanted prejudices. (Fiske, 2008, p16).

Gatacca essays

Gatacca essays The movie Gattaca is made up of ideas of human spirit and perfection. The society where everyone wants to be perfect. Made men in the world of Gattaca are taught from the beginning of their lives what they have been designed to achieve, they know their expectations and they know their limitations. Jerome is one of the example. Jerome is a perfect baby genetically born. He is a perfect man and couldnt face fall but through the movie, Jerome has proven that he is not a coward and he has redeeming qualities. By meeting Vincent, the invalid or born by love, with clear ambitions and goals, which nobody think he could success. from a young age I came to think of myself as others thought of me, chronically ill, Jerome is given the chance to experience something new and different, the ability to dream about what could be. He shares every part of Vincents transformation into a valid. This includes blood, hair, skin and urine and part where they can take sample from, and helped Vincent to change into a valid, and possible in achieving his dream. Jerome get the chance to learn about the hope of doing something thought impossible, however Jerome got the chance to experience this achievement through Vincents dream. It is the chance to experience something different that makes Jerome think that he got the better end of the deal. After coming second in the swimming race Jerome gave up all he had achieved, feeling his life was useless and not worth living. This lack of motivation was brought up by the society in Gattaca where everyone is going after the perfection they pursue. Everyone wants the best for their babies. Jerome he was told that due to his score of 9.3 he was able to achieve anything, He was genetically born to be champion swimmer. This causes the result that he couldnt take that fact of failure. The burden of perfection and the failing made Eugene attempt to take his own life. I ...

South African Food Security and the lack of Transport Systems essays

South African Food Security and the lack of Transport Systems essays South African Food Security and the lack of Transport Systems Agriculture is often a major part of any countries economy. It not only serves as a means of feeding the nations people, but also may serve as an excellent export to other countries. We are all familiar with Florida Oranges, Idaho Potatoes, and even Wisconsin Cheese. These have become famous for their unique taste or perhaps just marketability, which is an important strategy of foodstuffs next to the transportation systems. For example, because ours in the U.S. are up to date, it allows us to get certain crops, such as rice from Japan in a timely, low cost manner. However, in the SADC (Southern African Development Council) it is not that easy. Throughout this paper we will take a look at why that is from past to present, define agricultural development and offer reasons why an adequate transport system is necessary. African agricultural development history can be broken down into four periods: Pre-colonial, colonial, post-colonial and present day. There is similarities and differences between these periods that may offer some insight to how Africa grew into the situations they now face. Agriculture at this time was classified by subsistence farming and shifting cultivation due to a low land population. All food or most was cultivated for consumption by farmers and others who lived nearby and was directly linked to nutrition. At this time transport systems were virtually unnecessary. Agriculture during the colonial period, 1880 to mid 1960, was drastically altered and turned from being self-sufficient to on the verge of starvation. Colonization imposed the farming of cash crops along with several market and tax policies. This separated agriculture form nutrition, the backbone of African farming. The land needed to be under constant cultivation, rather than seasonal which was another way the Europeans exploit ...

Apple Inc Occupational Emergency Response Plan Research Paper

Apple Inc Occupational Emergency Response Plan - Research Paper Example Just as is the case within all other working environments, the ‘occupational emergency response plan’ is very relevant to the organization especially for such emergencies as injuries that would be sustained in the process of computer assembly as well as in operation of the machines during production. This paper therefore intends to develop an occupational emergency response plan for the Apple Inc organization as a mandatory and necessary tool within any working environment. The Apple Inc has a commitment to providing safe and secure working environment to its employees and as such takes any possible way to eliminate any hazard at work places in order to protect all people and in the process reduce the cases of illnesses or injuries at work place. For instance, within the suppliers ‘code of conduct’ of the organization, the organization’s commitment is to ensure all working conditions within the supply chain are safe and that employees are treated in a dignified manner as well as environmental safety is maintained for the well being of all (‘Apple Inc.’, 2009). The EPA as well as the OSHA has taken an active role in ensuring that organizations adopt an active role towards ensuring the safety of the working conditions within which their employees are. They require that organizations develop such occupational emergency response frameworks through which resources as well as specific responses towards particular situations are outlined and which often are refined regularly. Basic elements that are expected in a good response plan are up to date contacts of persons responsible for various duties within an organization in case of an emergency as well as ensuring that all departments as well as facilities work as stipulated within the plan to avoid confusion . Besides, it is as well necessary to stipulate resources to be used in case of such an emergency at work place (Hamel, 2012). The Apple Inc is obligated to have thoroughly trained response team personnel who would be set to offer immediate response in case of any emergency. The plan should sp ecifically outline the procedures and routes of escape in case of such an emergency as a fire, special assignments obligated on specific persons in response to any hazard and proper system through which employees will be accounted for after such a hazard. Besides, the plan should have a well stipulated mechanism of detection and communication of such a hazard as a fire within the working plant and immediate response procedures such as switching off the power mains. Therefore, the key elements that must be represented in an emergency plan within any organization are management structure, emergency responsibilities and assignments for emergencies as well as general procedures that employees should follow in cases of emergencies. This is because the main aim in developing the plan is to ensure that safety for employees within the organization is guaranteed against any hazard that faces the organization. Apple Inc occupational emergency response plan 1.0 Introduction: The following is a sample model of ‘Apple Inc occupational emergency response plan’ to a fire hazard. The organization’s activities in assembly and packaging of the computer systems occur within housing facilities, which are susceptible to fire outbreaks. Causes of such fires

Fiction Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Fiction Analysis - Essay Example In the very time, she takes the opportunity to go out and to her surprise she meets her husband contrary to the news the sister had delivered to her a short while. The experience led to her collapse and eventual death. This short story begins with who apparently is the main character in the story and the sister to the woman described in the story. She is referred to as sister of Louise; the woman on the other side is referred to as Josephine. Josephine is depicted as a woman with great traits as kindness, nurturing, and strength. The traits attributed to Josephine in a way had been experienced by the author who in the story was raised by the mother and other nuns in Katechopin.org a catholic school (Chopin, 18). It can then be deduced that the traits in this story was part of her life initially. The author’s (Kate Chopin) father died in a railroad accident in the early days and presumably this is why the story in this book has been framed in away that thee sister fictitiously tell the accident story to the woman (Chopin, 27). Because the father died when she was young, it may have appeared to her in a dream that her father was not hurt as it really was and that he one day came home-this may have had some influence in the orientation of the story. The woman described in this story equally was widowed in her prime age and from this, she learnt on how to earn a living from writing without depending on anybody (Chopin, 32). The story did not exempt the engagement of irony and satire in which the sister to the woman, Louise made the all radical decision to be free as a woman who is entitled to herself to exhaust the experiences in life. She decides to triumph in her bid and finally lived see this happen. The hidden lesson of the story is rather hidden in the sense that even no reference is made to the historical event, it tends to communicate a